الفهرس 
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Abstract
Retinopathy is a serious complication of diabetes mellitus. Diabetic retinopathy is characterized by certain micro-angiopathic changes in the form of microaneurysms, microvascular leakage, microinfarcts, venous caliber abnormalities, arteriovenous shunts, macular oedema and neovascularization.
According to these retinal findings, diabetic retinopathy is divided into a mild stage which is called non proliferative retinopathy and a severe stage which is called proliferative retinopathy. Pre-proliferative stage of retinopathy is considered as a subcategory of the non-proliferative type.
The onset as well as the progression of diabetic retinopathy are assumed to be influenced by many risk factors. These factors are the duration of diabetes, the degree of glycemic control, arterial blood pressure, renal function, plasma lipids, obesity, alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking. However, the exact mechanisms by which these risk.