الفهرس 
IntroductionOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
 |  | from | 286 |  |  |
| | | from | 286 | | |
Abstract
Breast carcinoma is the commonest malignancy in women. Triple assessment (clinical, radiological and cytological) is a very useful diagnostic tool to evaluate patients with breast lumps and to detect patients with breast cancers with an overall accuracy of 99.3% and sensitivity of 99%.Triple test score (TTS) is the combination of results from clinical breast examination (CBE), imaging, and cytological sampling and considers a powerful clinical tool that permits rapid, minimally invasive, and accurate diagnosis of breast malignancies that reducing the need for open biopsy and preventing unnecessary surgeries.
Fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) is the first step in evaluating patients with palpable breast masses and the most reliable part of the triple test. Attempts have been made to determine various prognostic parameters on FNA material for the management in a given case. Cytological grading (CG) on aspirates of breast carcinomas is a useful tool for assessing prognosis. The purpose of cyto-prognostic grading is to identify fast growing tumors (Grade III), which are more likely to respond to chemotherapy than the low grade.
Cytological diagnosis is performed by estimating the histopathological type of the disease and also by performing immunocytochemical staining of the cytological specimen that increases the reliability of diagnosis when complemented by immunocytochemical staining. The cell block technique employs the retrieval of small tissue fragments from a FNA specimen which are processed to form a paraffin block. Numerous tissue sections allows for multiple immunostains and other studies to be performed akin to
Summary
234
paraffin sections produced in histopathology, so cell blocks are the superior method for ICC for any cytologic specimen.
Cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) form a heterologous group of proteins that are expressed in gametes and trophoblasts and represent attractive biomarker candidates for cancer diagnosis/prognosis. Sperm-associated antigen 9 (SPAG9) is one of non- X CT antigen and involved in c-Jun-NH2-kinase (JNK)-signaling module and functions as ascaffolding protein for binding to JNKs that play an important regulatory role in several physiologic processes, including cell survival, proliferation, apoptosis, and tumor development.