الفهرس 
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Abstract
The present work included two experiments on sweet marjoram (Majorana hortensis Moench) as follows:
1st Exp. Evaluation of productivity and quality of marjoram at different locations in Egypt
This study was carried out during 2018/2019 season to evaluate marjoram productivity (dry herb and essential oil) by comparing plant samples were collected from seven productive locations (Giza, Beni-Suef, Faiyum, Minia, Assiut, Sohag, and east Elowainat) in Egypt. The evaluation included three criterions under environmental conditions of each location:
• Dry herb yield.
• Essential oil production.
• Chemical composition of essential oil.
In comparison with the obtained results of previous locations since that can define the relationship between the high productivity and quality of marjoram, and the suitable environmental conditions depending on the locations where the plants grew. This present clear knowledge for marjoram cultivation and could develop well under Assiut conditions in order to become among the best governorates which characterized by high productivity and quality which would facilitate marketability and exports. Recently, Assiut cultivate the smallest area with marjoram (7.33 fed), as well as the minimum productions of dry herb (0.11 ton/fed) and essential oil (2.2 ℓ /fed) in comparison with other governorates.
The following results obtained:
• Dry herb yield
Results indicated that the maximum dry herb production of marjoram of the studied locations following the descending order: Faiyum> east Elowainat> Giza> Beni-Suef> Minia> Sohag> Assiut as produced 2.50, 2.00, 1.80, 1.79, 1.15, 0.33 and 0.11 ton / fed, respectively.
• Essential oil production
The essential oil yield was decreased in the sequence of east Elowainat> Faiyum> Beni-Suef> Minia> Giza> Sohag> Assiut as recorded 60.0, 37.5, 28.7, 26.5, 21.6, 5.9 and 2.2 ℓ /fed, respectively.
• Chemical composition of essential oil
The chemical determination showed the quantitative and qualitative GC-MS analysis of marjoram volatile oil which contained more than 35 essential oil components were varied in their composition percentages according to the plant growing location. Apparently, the studied locations showed considerable variations where some components were increased in some locations and decreased or disappeared in the others. Such variations in the essential oil content might be attributed to the varied environmental conditions and geographical regions, altitude, temperature, salinity and drought. In addition, the other factors affecting the oil composition are macro- and micro-nutrients contents in plant, as well as organic matter content in soil; they play vital roles in the essential oil formation and its composition.
- The composition percentages of mainly components of marjoram essential oil in the studied locations ranged as follows: 4-terpineol (12.48-40.05%), γ-terpinene (10.77-22.53%), sabinene (3.92-12.73%), α-terpinene (0.16-8.82%), linalool (1.27-7.28%), α-pinene (0.42-1.31%), β- pinene (0.12-1.03%), (+)-trans-4-thujanol (6.31-16.77%), α-thujene (1.46-12.02%), β-thujene (3.09-6.48%), α -phellandrene (0.88-4.89%), carvacrol (0.24-0.45%), (-)-β-caryophyllene (4.03-6.19%). The main components of essential oil of marjoram in Assiut location had intermediate variables for previously mentioned ones.
2nd Exp. Productivity and quality of marjoram as affected by soil amendments and effective microorganisms
An open field experiment was carried out at the Floriculture Nursery, Faculty of Agriculture, Assiut University during two continual seasons (2020/21 and 2021/22) to investigate the influence of some soil amendments (Filter mud cake, Tacamoleia fertilizer, Chicken manure, Nile compost and Mix compost, besides unamended control) each combined with three levels of effective microorganisms (0, 3 and 6 ml /ℓ) were applied as a soil drench on marjoram growth, herb yield, essential oil production, and its constituents, chemical properties and quality, also leaf contents of chemical and biochemical compounds. Besides, soil chemical properties and enzyme activities.
Marjoram seeds were sown in September 25th 2020 and 2021, after treated with fungicide, in foam trays filled with a mixture of peatmoss + perlite (1:2 v/v). Trays were placed under suitable environmental conditions for seed germination (50 % shade, ambient temperature 20-22 °C and relative humidity 70-75%). When the new seedlings elongated and developed were carefully selected as being uniform in their size (10 cm in height with 4 leaves) and transplanted in the experimental soil (December 10th 2020 and 2021).
Seedlings were transplanted in plots (experimental unites), each was one square meter including two rows with 50 cm distance, and each row contained five hills at 3 cm depth and 20 cm distance (10 plants per m², equivalent 40000 plants per feddan).
This experiment was arrangement in a split plot design with four replicates. Soil amendments (6 treatments) were distributed in the main plots and the three treatments of effective microorganisms (EMs) in the sub-plots. Accordingly, the experiment contained 18 treatments.
Each soil amendment was applied at 75 unit-organic N (full recommended dose); divided into two doses; the first at 50 unit-N was added during soil preparation, and the second at 25 unit- N applied after the 1st cuttage immediately. Applications of EMs were applied 6 times as soil drenches (twice through growth of each cut, two weeks intervals at the same levels). Cuttage herb (3-cut / season) was done in March 15th, April 30th and June 15th of each growing season. At harvest-time; 7 cm-long above the soil surface was left for each plant.
The study presented the following principal concepts:
• Growth characteristics
• Nutritional and hormonal states in plant
• Herb yield and quality
• Leaf yield and quality
• Essential oil yield, its components and quality
• Soil chemical properties and enzyme activities
The obtained results could be summarized as follows:
• Growth characteristics
- Application of soil amendments showed apparently stimulative effect on all studied vegetative growth and root measurements (plant height, branch number, fresh and dry weights of aerial parts and roots) during growing season (3-cut/season (compared to unamended control.
- Chicken manure (CM) was the most effective treatment in stimulating the growth strongly followed by mix compost (MC); both treatments recorded significant increases in growth characteristics of each cuttage compared to the other soil amendments in most cases.
- Effective microorganisms (EMs) at a rate of 3 or 6 ml /ℓ showed significant increases compared to control. The values of the significant differences between both levels were alternated in the most tested traits.
- The interactive effects between soil amendments and EMs treatments indicated that the combined treatment of ”CM+EM6”; followed by ”MC+EM3” were more effective in their efficiencies on growth resulting in the highest parameter values with significant increases compared to the other combinations.
• Nutritional and hormonal states in plant
- The two best treatments which produced the optimum plant growth and development were closely associated with more balanced total uptake of nutrient elements (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn and Zn) since raised their contents in leaves in most cases. The chemical analysis showed an antagonistic effect on the absorption of Fe and Mn.
- A direct relationship between the considerable increase in leaf contents of macro-and micro-nutrients and the maximum physiological activity obtained which led to great increases in synthesis of the most important biochemical compounds in leaves such as endogenous promoting plant growth (auxin and gibberellin), the major antioxidant components and others. In contrast, the worst growth of control was closely correlated with the minimum values of such components.
• Herb yield and quality
- It was clearly observed great differences between herb yield through the three harvested cuts where the 2nd cut was characterized by higher production of fresh and dry herb that evaluated values by approximate 4.5- and 1.5-fold over the 1st and 3rd cuts, respectively.
- A close association between herb yield (fresh & dry) and the efficient productivity of treatments that was most apparent in the two superior combinations in increasing the growth, however, ”CM+ EM6” produced the highest yield was approximately 15 and 4.4, but the followed combination ”MC+ EM3” gave 12 and 3.5 ton /fed, respectively for fresh and dry herb, meanwhile, the control produced the lowest yield (2.6 ton fresh and 697 Kg dry / fed).
- In general, ethanolic herb extract of marjoram showed a vital role indicating clear antimicrobial and antifungal behaviors against eighteen species that is very important in manufacturing of pharmaceutical, and including raw and processed food preservation.
• Leaf yield and quality
- The best combinations of ”CM+ EM6” and ”MC+ EM3” produced the maximum yield of dry leaves as the first combination gave 2.7 and the second one 2.5 ton/fed, but the control recorded the minimum yield (479 kg/fed).
- Leaves of the two best combinations contained the lowest concentrations of nitrate (196 and 238 ppm, respectively) compared to control (385 ppm). Such levels are within the permissible limits according to reports of FAO (2006).
- Leaves of the two best combinations contained the lowest levels of heavy metals of lead, cupper and chromium as ”CM+ EM6” recorded 7.65, 5.65 and 7.35 ppm, but ”MC+EM3” resulted in 9.48, 7.01 and 8.31 ppm, respectively. These concentrations are within the permissible limits according to the criterion of WHO (2011). Meanwhile, heavy metals of cadmium, nickel and cobalt were disappeared justly in leaves.
- It is clearly appeared that the increased physiological activities in plant which noticeably correlated with considerable increases in biosynthesis of photosynthetic pigments (chlorophylls & carotenoids), primary metabolites (carbohydrates, protein and fatty acids) and antioxidant compounds (phenolics, flavonoids and vitamin C) were closely associated with the improvement in growth characteristics, more absorptions of macro-and micro-nutrients, and the maximum yields of herb and leaves. The two best combinations of ”CM+EM6” and ”MC+EM3” were the most effective treatments in raising the synthesis of such biochemical compounds.
• Essential oil yield, its component and quality
- In general, soil amendments and EMs treatments improved essential oil characteristics (oil percentage, oil yield per plant and per feddan) compared to control.
- It was noticed that the physiological activity in plant strongly correlated with its metabolism processes reflecting on increasing the previous biochemical constituents and also oil yield per plant since the two best combinations of ”CM+EM6” and ”MC +EM3” showed a great production of annual essential oil as achieved 63 and 48 ℓ /fed respectively, while the control gave the minimum oil yield (6 ℓ /fed).
- GC-MS analysis of the essential oil extracted from the second cut showed more than 35 constituents among them 12 dominant compounds. The combination of ”CM+ EM6” achieved higher percentages of 4-terpineol, p-cymene and γ-terpinene than ”MC+ EM3”, while the later recorded higher percentages of α-terpinene, (+)-trans-4-thujanol, α-terpineol, linalool and (-)-β-caryophyllene, than the first one.
- The values of some chemical properties of essential oil (iodine number and acid number) appeared a positive coordination with the oil high-quality obtained from the tested treatments where as ”CM+ EM6” recorded higher iodine number than ”MC+ EM3”, but the acid number was equally for their oils.
• Soil chemical properties and enzyme activities.
- The results cleared that a direct coordination in soil was found among the high availability of nutrient elements, the stimulation of microbial activity and the highest values of enzyme activities, and consequently improved the soil biological quality and enhanced plant growth, oil yield and some chemical and biochemical constituents of marjoram plants particularly which produced by the two superior combinations.
Recommendation
from the obtained results, the combination of ”CM+ EM6” proved to be the best treatment for marjoram production. This combined treatment was associated with enhancement of growth characteristics, the maximum yields of herb and leaves (4.4 and 2.7 ton /fed, respectively), essential oil yield (63 ℓ /fed) and raising the percentages of the dominant constituents and improved its chemical properties. These findings indicated that a good correlation was found between this treatment and the increased physiological traits and metabolism processes (primary and secondary metabolites) in plant with reductions in nitrate and heavy metals level in its tissues, as well as its efficacy as antimicrobial and antifungal. Besides, this treatment improved soil properties and increased the microbial and enzyme activities.
So, it could be recommended to apply this treatment for organic marjoram herb is cleanly, safety, health quality and free contaminated chemicals that is desirable in manufacturing of pharmaceutical, food industries and export.