الفهرس 
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Abstract
In this work, we categorize the applications of WSN based on different aspects to show the major protocol design issues. Thus, the energy efficiency of the recent proactive routing protocols is studied from different angles. The energy overhead and energy fairness of each protocol were carefully analyzed. The most energy efficient routing protocols for homogeneous proactive networks were studied and compared to highlight the research challenges and existing problems in this area. The results proved that energy overhead and route selection are the most effective aspects of network lifetime and network efficiency. Accordingly, this work addresses the routing hole problem due to energy depletion and the trade-off between the network need for periodic setups to preserve connectivity and power constraints on sensor nodes. We solved the problem of the premature end of network lifetime in applications where the base station (BS) is far from the Region Of Interest (ROI). Two distributed, energy-efficient, and connectivity-aware routing protocols for solving the routing hole problem were introduced. These protocols are On-Hole Children Reconnection (OHCR) with local nature and On-Hole Alert (OHA) with global nature. The proposed protocols preserve the connectivity of all single setup phase, single path networks with any topology in an energy efficient manner by avoiding topology reformation overhead. Simulation results proved that the proposed protocols outperform the recent ones in terms of network lifetime, node loss rate, and network overhead. Such that, the two protocols are examined on both Degree Constrained Tree (DCT) and Shortest Path Tree (SPT) to provide about 50% to 75% increase in network lifetime over the recent energy efficient routing protocols ; like UCCGRA and NEECP. Additionally, applying OHCR and OHA to any network topology doesn’t affect its stability period, since these protocols are triggered by routing hole occurrence. On the other hand, applying our protocols on additional antenna enabled nodes to lead to a noticeable increase in network lifetime. Objectives of Thesis : A.Make a detailed study of the nature of wireless sensor networks (WSN). B.Categorization of the various WSN applications according to scientific and application standards. C.Study of the most fundamental and widespread problems affecting the efficiency of WSN, which is the problem of limited energy. D.Comparing and analyzing various solutions to the problem of limited power in WSN. E. Provide two routing protocols to solve the problem of the premature end of network lifetime in WSN due to energy consumption in data transmission